Amplifier system

ABSTRACT

Up to n amplifiers are connected in tandem to form an n-fold system. Feedback is taken from the output of each amplifier but the one closest the input signal, to (n-1) summing junctions connected in tandem between the input signal source and the amplifier closest thereto. The summing junction fed back to, by the remotest amplifier, is nearest the signal source, the next nearest is the next most remote amplifier, and so on. At a given value of input signal the most remote amplifier saturates, at a higher value, the next most remote saturates, and so on, so as the signal increases amplifiers saturate, one after the other. When any given amplifier saturates, the unsaturated amplifier nearest it has a sharp increase in its output signal, until it, too, saturates. A pair of parallelled two-fold systems provide a controller controlling a valve, by switching a motor on to open the valve, on to close the valve, or off to hold the valve in position. The inputs to the system are connected by the high resistance of a field effect transistor. The amplifiers more remote from the inputs are set to saturate when one input signal is higher than the other by more than enough to switch the motor on. If such saturation occurs, one of the less remote amplifiers sharply increases its output and thereby causes the field effect transistor to present a low resistance shunting the inputs and therefore limiting the difference between the signals applied to the inputs.

United States Patent [1 1 Werner [451 Jan. 9, 1973 [54] AMPLIFIER SYSTEM [75] Inventor: Alan J. Werner, Brighton, NY.

[73] Assignee: Sybron Corporation [22] Filed: Nov. 28, 1969 [21] Appl. No.: 880,443

Related U.S. Application Data I [62] Division of Ser. No. 633,294, April 24, 1967, Pat.

Primary ExaminerHerman Karl Saalbach Assistant Examiner-B. P. Davis AttorneyPeter J. Young, Jr. MacKenyie and Joseph C.

[57] ABSTRACT Up to n amplifiers are connected in tandem to form an n-fold system. Feedback is taken from the output of each amplifier but the one closest the input signal, to (n-l) summing junctions connected in tandem between the input signal source and the amplifier closest thereto. The summing junction fed back to, by the remotest amplifier, is nearest the signal source, the next nearest is the next most remote amplifier, and so on. At a given value of input signal the most remote amplifier saturates, at a higher value, the next most remote saturates, and so on, so as the signal increases amplifiers saturate, one after the other. When any given amplifier saturates, the unsaturated amplifier nearest it has a sharp increase in its output signal, untilit, too, saturates. A pair of parallelled two-fold systems provide a controller controlling a valve, by switching a motor on to open the valve, on to close the valve, or off to hold the valve in position. The inputs to the system are connected by the high resistance of a field effect transistor. The amplifiers more remote from the inputs are set tosaturate when one input signal is higher than the other by more than enough to switch the motor on. If such saturation occurs, one of the less remote amplifiers sharply increases its output and thereby causes the field effect transistor to present a low resistance shunting the inputs and therefore limiting the difference between the signals applied to the inputs.

Y 7 Claims, 7 Drawing Figures AMPLIFIER SYSTEM The present application is a division of my pending application Ser. No. 633,294, filed Apr. 24, 1967, now US. Pat. No. 3,500,]53, granted Mar. 1970, entitled Controller Including An Amplifier System."

This invention relates to event-discrimination and to limiting, and also and to feedback amplifier systems wherein limiting and event-discrimination are desirable.

Various forms of such systems and features are known in the prior art. The systems have input signals applied thereto, and the problems involved include providing limiting of such signals at a certain value, but not at another value, and to discriminate stably and precisely between the occurrences of said values, (which occurrences are the events to be discriminated, or represent such events), even where the difference between said values is small. Amplifying systems of one sort and another have been used heretofore to separate the events to be discriminated, but insofar as I am aware, such systems have been unsatisfactory for various reasons.

An input signal and a feedback signal are applied to a summingjunction which produces a firstsignal which is the input signal reduced in value by the value of the feedback signal. The first signal is amplified by a first amplifier which in response produces a second signal which in turn is amplified by a second amplifier which in response produces a third signal. A feedback loop derives said feedback signal from the third signal.

The second amplifier is designed so that it saturates when the said input signal attains a first given value, whereas the first amplifier is designed so that it can amplify, without saturating, said input signal at a second given value greater than said first given value. Each amplifier has feedback-stabilized high gain independently of said feedback loop and of the other said amplifier.

For said input signal at values less than said given value, said second signal values are less than they would be were the said feedback loop disconnected, whereas changes in value of said input signal result in relatively large changes of said third signal. However, if the second amplifier saturates, said second signal now behaves as if the said feedback loop is disconnected for changes in said input signal above said first given value. Hence, change of said input signal from said first given value to said second value results in relatively large changes in said second signal. Said third signal, however, does not increase above the value it had when the second amplifier saturated.

Each of the described large signal change regimes of the second and third signals can correspond to a quite small change in said input signal, and the change in said input signal that results in the second amplifier changing from an unsaturated state to a saturated state can also be quite small. Accordingly, the'said large signal change regimes correspond to respective values of input signal that are quite close together. Moreover, said regimes cannot overlap, because the one cannot occur unless saturation of the second amplifier has occurred.

The system can be extended by inserting a second summing junction between the source of said input signal and the first-mentioned summing junction, providing a third amplifier is amplify said third signal and produce a fourth signal in response, and adding a second feedback loop to derive a second feedback signal from said fourth signal and apply it to the second summing junction. The third amplifier is designed to saturate before the second amplifier can, and therefore a third large signal change regime results.

The general property of these systems can be termed discriminating between (or among) events: occurrences of given values of the input signal. When such given value obtains, only one, and always the same, amplifier is producing a signal undergoing a large change regime. This regime obtains for a predeterminably small input signal range, in which the last said given value falls, and cannot overlap any other large change regime.

The two-event system is used in limiting an on-off type controller to which the equivalent of the aforesaid input signal is applied. Thus, the said first given value is one that is supposed to turn the controller on, whereas the second given value is supposed to result in limiting the value of the input signal applied to the controller. The two-event system is incorporated in the controller and designed to discriminate between the two given values which are chosen to be as close together as the discriminating capability of the system will permit.

The limiting is performed by a field effect transistor arranged to shunt the first amplifier, in effect, with its drain to source resistance. The output of the second amplifier provides said second signal in the form of a voltage for the control electrode of the transistor, the second amplifier being designed so that it has to go into its large signal change regime before the said voltage can become large enough to drop the drain to source resistance of the field effect transistor from many megohms to a value that will limit the voltage across said resistance, to the desired value. In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a three-fold event discriminating system according to the invention;

FIG. 2 is a diagram of an n-fold event discriminating system according to the invention, with sensors;

FIGS. 3, 4 and 5 are diagrams illustrating the operation of the system of FIG. 1; and

FIG. 6 is a diagram of an n-fold event discriminating system visualized on a twofold basis;

FIG. 7 is a diagram of a process control system utilizing according to the invention.

In an amplifier having a fraction B of its output signal E fedback in opposition to the input signal E causing the amplifier to produce E the gain G from input to output, that is the ratio of output signal to input signal is nm/ m=( (l) where A is the open loop gain of the amplifier, that is, the gain that would obtain, but for the feedback. The indicated approximation holds for large enough A. In the system of FIG. 1, for example, equation (I applies to the feedback amplifier subsystem defined by amplifier A feedback loop 13,, summing junction 5,, whose input signal is E and whose output signal is E Summing junction S has the property that the feedback signal F, BE, reduces the signal E to the value E,, that is to say, assigning a positive sense to E it is arranged that F, have a negative sense, and the two signals are algebraically added by junction S which applies the resultant sum signal E, to the amplifier A,.

The foregoing iswell understood and its application to the similar feedback amplifier subsystems including amplifiers A and A is obvious. The brackets and vertical dashed line arrows identify these subsystems as 0,,

G, and G;,. For convenience, reference characters identifying the feedback loops, amplifiers and subsystems, are the symbols by which the feedback factors, open loop gains, and gains with feedback are ex-v pressed mathematically herein. Thus, the gains of the subsystems C1,, G and G are 6,, G and G respectively.

Consider now the subsystem 12, composed of subsystems G,: and G Here the output signal of subsystem G, is E,,,, and that of subsystem G is E Further,

E01 G1E12 (2a) E02 G2E0! (2b) Equations 2a and 2b show that if gain G is large,

02 1 2 l2 l 2) 13 Dividing equation 3a by equation 3b:

The foregoing supposes that subsystems G, and G are operating in their linear regions, which are considered to obtain unless saturation occurs. According to the invention, however, the systems of FIG. 1 is designed so that saturation occurs in amplifier A before it can occur in amplifier A,. That is, there is a given value of signal E, such that signal E will be large enough to cause subsystem G, to produce an output signal E which is large enough to saturate amplifier A When amplifier A saturates, the magnitude of feedback signal F can increase no further. Consequently, any increment in signal E above the said given value is treated as if G, in equations 3a, 3b and 3c is zero.

As long as subsystem G has not saturated, E is much smaller than E as is evident from equation 3c. Hence, until subsystem G saturates E cannotvexceed a value equal to the maximum value of E divided by gain G E of course, reaches its maximum when subsystem G, saturates. With gain G large, if E is connected to a sensor which cannot sense a value of E less than E divided by G then it will be certain that the sensor will not respond to any value of E,,, that can exist while subsystem G is unsaturated.

When subsystem G saturates, gain G becomes zero in respect of increase in E above the value required to cause subsystem G to saturate, and corresponding increase in E is equal to G,E, (as can be ascertained from taking gain G in equation 30 to be zero for such increase in E In other words, upon saturation of .subsystem G the gain from E to E increases by the factor l-l-B,,G,G,) with respect to the said increase in E With both of gains G, and G large, such gain increase results in a sudden large increase in E for a very small increase in E once subsystem G saturates. This allows choice of a sensor for E that cannot sense E until it reaches a value that is much larger than any pre-saturation value E,,, can possibly attain.

The overall system G is obtained by adding a summing junction S feedback loop 8, and the subsystem G to the subsystem G Thismakes E the resultant sum signal of the input signal E and feedback signal P B E where F is the feedback signal due to feedback of output signal E of subsystem G In this system G subsystem G plays the roll of subsystem G,, as described above, and subsystem G It is evident further that system G can form a subsystem corresponding to subsystem G and be combined with a further subsystem corresponding to subsystem G to form a still higher system than G,,,,

which in turn can also be a subsystem combined with a G -type'subsystem to form a yet higher system, and so on, ad infinitum.

Since G may be written as 612 l 2 12 l 2) the signals E E and E may be written as follows:

where X= l+B, G,G- +B, ,G,G G Equations 6a, 6b and 6c apply where none of amplifiers A,, A and A saturate. It is obvious from the equations that E can be by far the largest output signal, under this condition.

After the amplifier A saturates but before saturation of amplifiers A, and A the system equations become:

where Y l+B, G,G,. Here again, it is clear that E can be much larger than E when amplifier A alone is saturated. E on the other hand, attains its maximum value, and remains there as long as the amplifier is saturated.

Finally, with both amplifiers A and A saturated but amplifier A, not saturated:

m l ln (E01 2 1) m) E E max. (8b) E E max. (8c) If the gains G G and G approach infinity, the approximations indicated parenthetically in the equation systems obtain.

Since the gains G G G G and G are determined by feedback, the gain characteristics can be fixed with high stability and accuracy.

I have designated the system of FIG. 1 an event detecting system. In FIG. 2, box G illustrates an n-fold event detecting system obtained by generalizing the three-amplifier system of FIG. 1 to higher order systems, in the manner in which the system G was developed in explaining FIG. 1.

Thus, system G produces the output signals E E and B in accordance with FIG. 1. In addition, since G is n-fold, there must be n output signals in all, two of these being depicted as E and E Each such output signal is received by a corresponding signal sensor, so that there are n sensors, sensors 1, 2, 3, n-1 and n being shown connected to receive the depicted output signals, and the dashed line 11 symbolizing the remaining sensor corresponding to the non-depicted output signals.

System G receives the signal E from a suitable source 10. For purposes of illustration, suppose that E is in the form of a DC voltage varying from zero, say, to some upper value, E,,,. The events to be detected are the occurrences of various different voltage values, say, in increasing order, E E,,.,, E,, Em E E,,,,,, E,,,, where the subscripts m and n are whole numbers, with m less than n. For simplicity, suppose that E has increased, ramp fashion, say, to a value between E and E From the description of FIG. 1, it is intuitively evident that the various amplifiers of the subsystems in the box G have all saturated, except those corresponding to A A and A the principle being that the unsaturated amplifier most remote from the ultimate input signal source, i.e., source 10, must saturate before any other unsaturated amplifier does.

Accordingly, as the input signal changes from E to E,,, output signals are changing as shown in FIGS. 3, 4 and 5. Thus, from E, 0, E E and E increase at a relatively slow rate, and, just prior to E becoming E the three output signals are of the same order of amplitude. However, at E the amplifier of the subsystem next following the subsystem of G corresponding to system G of FIG. 1, saturates. Accordingly, as indicated in FIG. 3, output signal E changes at a much faster rate, since the last said subsystem is now amplifying the change from E to E with a larger effective gain than the change from zero to E,,,,.;,.

From E to E output signal E does not increase much, but at E the amplifier corresponding to A saturates, and from E to E E which is the output signal of a subsystem of G corresponding to subsystem G of FIG. 1, increases at an increased rate. E continues to increase moderately until E at which value the amplifier corresponding to A, saturates, whereupon, E now begins its rapid increaseult will be observed, further that if E,,, saturates the remaining amplifier, i.e., the one corresponding to amplifier A of FIG. 1, its immediate input signal which corresponds to E, from summing junction 8,, FIG. I, also undergoes a change in rate of increase, since changes in E over and above that value needed to saturate the last amplifier (corresponding to amplifier A,) are passed on by the corresponding junction without reduction by feedback. Taking this last effect into account, system G may therefore also be characterized as an (n+1 )-fold event detecting system.

FIGS. 3, 4 and 5 are, of course, somewhat idealized. For example, the low-rate-of-change sections of the output signal curves would have a somewhat drooped shape, since every time an amplifier saturated there would be a slight increase in the rate of increase of the output signal of the corresponding subsystem. Again, practical amplifiers saturate on a finite change in signal so there would be a rounding of the knees of the output signal'curves.

The events, that is the values of E,,,, to be detected are detected in precisely the order they occur, and never otherwise. In the prior art, this result is ordinarily difficult to secure if the values are close together. With the present invention, however, consecutive events may be spaced by an amount on the order of the signal change needed to cause saturation. For example, if a typical amplifier saturates on 0.5 millivolt change in E,,,, the constants of the system containing the amplifier can be arranged so that one more millivolt or less of change in E in the same sense as the former change suffices to operate the corresponding sensor of FIG. 2.

Again, suppose the sensors 2 and 3 are of the type that are relatively indefinite in their operation, for example, an electromagnetic relay which is rated to operate at a certain voltage applied to their solenoids which, however, a tolerance that is larger than the difference between the two values of E that are to be detected. Such conventional means as have been envisaged heretofore for operating these relays, in general, suffer from stability and accuracy problems. With the present invention, however, inspection of FIGS. 3 and 4 shows that the characteristics of the relays are relatively independenton the values of E Thus, in terms of voltage, the E axis could represent a thousand millivolts in all, whereas the output voltage axes could represent a number of volts, six say. Thus, a relay that definitely would not operate at under 2 volts applied thereto, but could not be relied on to operate infallibly unless at least four volts were applied thereto, could be used for sensors 2 and 3 (and any of the other sensors, of course).

It is evident that sensors 1 change sensitive devices. In this case, of course, the gain characteristics of the system would have to be such that the slowest rate of change of E would not decrease the slope of what is shown as the steep parts of the output/input curves, FIGS. 3, 4 and 5, enough that the sensors could not distinguish between the slopes of the two sections of the output/input curves.

The proportions of FIGS. 3, 4 and 5 are consistent with uniform event spacing (supposing the E axis between 0 and E to have been somewhat compressed), equality of the effective gains corresponding to the steep parts of the output/input curves, and ramp change in E,,,. Choice of system constants and eventn could be rate of spacing, and of manner of change E are not thus restricted, however, andl am not aware of any restrictions the discussion of which would be material here.

FIG. 6 epitomizes the n-fold system along the lines of FIG. 1. Looking at FIG. 1, it will be seen that each of the subsystems G G G and G and the system G can be put in a box by itself and called a subsystem. Taking an n-fold system, and thus boxing all but the nth amplifier, the subsystem n-l results, whose output signal is E which is also the input signal to the nth subsystem G,,, whose output E is fed back as signal F, via loop 8,, to summing junction S to which E isalso applied, so that error signal E,, the algebraic sum of E and F,,, is the input signal to subsystem G,, Supposing subsystem G, not to have saturated, the analysis previously made for subsystems G, and G that is, the subsystem G applies to system of FIG. 6.

Mathematically:

on ln tn (8) where. G is the gain of the system before subsystem G saturates, and in general on-l I: n1/ n n-1 n) tn; and

on-1 on/ n (9 In FIG. 7, amplifiers 11 and 12, feedback loop 13 and summing junction 14 define a subsystem like G of FIG. 1 (the counterparts of feedback loops B and B are not shown, but they may be imagined to be inside the amplifier triangles), which is part of an amplifying channel whose input is the voltage output of a DC voltage source 15, and includes a terminal 16, the summing junction 14, amplifier ll, amplifier 12, a switch 17 and one winding l8of a motor M having a rotating armature 19. Switch 17 controls the energization of winding .18 by a power source 20 (the usual AC mains power,

say). Source provides a positive DC voltage that is to say, E of FIG. 1. Ignoring, for the moment, a feedback loop 130 connected to summing junction 16, and

. switch 17 and winding 18, the just described channel in order to distinguish between the channels. The

second channel's input E is the positive DC voltage output ofa voltage source 15.

The two channels are intercoupled by circuitry, denoted in a general way by box 22 and designed to make the channels cooperate as-a plural stage differential amplifier. Thus, amplifiers 1 1 and 11' provide one such stage, and amplifiers 12 and 12' another. This practice is well known in the art and has as its consequence that unless the voltage E and E differ more than by a given amount, called the deadband, neither channel produces an output voltage (other than a negligible residual voltage, due to so-called commonmode effects). On the other band, should the input voltages differ by more than the deadband, then there will be an output from the channel having the larger input voltage (in this example, the more positive one).

The gain characteristics of the system are designed so that when the deadband is exceeded by a given amount, the channel producing the consequent output voltage, E or E.,,, causesthe corresponding one of switches 17 and 17' to close, and energize the corresponding one of windings l8 and 18. If the deadband is not exceeded, neither switch is open, or if the difference between E and E becomes less than the deadband, the corresponding switch opens. Accordingly, the operation of the system is, so far, to open one of switches 17 and 17', to keep both open, to close one of them only, or to keep one closed.

It is obvious that it serves no purpose to let the difference between E and E any larger than is necessary to close one of the switches. The previouslydescribed mode of operation of system G is now used to limit such difference, as well as to provide switch operation. Thus, each of amplifiers 12 and 12' are set so that it saturates if the difference between E and E exceeds the deadband by a predetermined amount over and above the difference required to cause on of the switches 17 and 17 to close. From what has been said as to system G it is evident that saturation of one of,

one of amplifiers 21 and 21, which are connected through respective diodes 23 and 23', to a zener diode 24, which in turn is connected to the control electrode e of a field effect transistor FET. Transistor FET, in turn, is connected between summing junctions 16 and 16" by means of its drain electrode d and its source electrode s.

Each of amplifiers 21 and 21' has its gain set so that it must produce an output voltage from a value of voltage E or E obtaining during the sharp increasing regime, in order to fire zener diode 24. The firing voltage of the diode, in turn, is chosen so that when fired, the diode will impress on control electrode e a voltage that will reduce the drain to source resistance of the FET to a value sufficiently low to limit the difference between E and E to the desired value. Preferably, intercoupling circuitry 122 is provided that causes the amplifiers 21 and 21 to operate as a differential amplifier, whose deadband is large enough to assure that diode 24 fires only in the sharp increase regime of E or E as the case may be. (The diodes 23 and 23', it is to be remarked; serve to isolate the output ends of amplifiers 21 and 21 from each other.)

In practice, a modest amount of gain in the amplifiers 21 and 21', and the deadband due to their differential connection, allow much leeway as to choice to the gain characteristics of amplifiers l1 and 11' (the gains corresponding to G that is to say). Further, unlike amplifiers 11 and 11, there is'no need to stabilize amplifiers 21 and 21 which can be of relatively crude and inexpensive design, without any loss of system stability or precision.

As a whole, the system of FIG. 7 illustrates a process controller in which the limiting feature is of special significance. Thus, mechanical gearing 25, or the like, illustrated as a dashed line, is rotated by armature 19 so as to move the valve stem 26 of a valve V. For purpose of illustration, consider that if winding 18 is energized, armature l9 actuates gearing 25 to move the stem 26 such as to cause the valve to close to an extent proportional to the amount of armature rotation. Say, too, that if winding 18 is energized instead of winding 18, then the armature l9 reverses its direction of rotation, and causes the gearing to move the stem 26 such as to the valve to open to an extent proportional to the amount of reverse rotation of the armature. Finally, it is to be considered that if the armature is standing still, the valve stands open (or closed) to an extent reached the last time the armature stopped rotating.

The valve controls a flow of control agent, say heat- .ing fluid, to a process P and influences a temperature therein, that measures some property of the process or its workings, as well as the effect of the heating agent on the process. Thus, this would be a process wherein the temperature is to be kept, at some fixed value or set point by controlling the rate at which heating agent is supplied to the process, hence a temperature signal T would be transmitted to the source which in response would .produce E in proportion to the magnitude of the temperature.

The gearing 25 is also shown as moving the slider 27 v of a potentiometer 28 connected across a battery 29,

the arrangement being that the position of the slider, and therefore of the voltage at the slider is a measure of the amount the valve V is open or closed, (its position, as it is often called), which in turn is a measure of the rate at which control agent is being admitted to the process. This measure of valve position is fed back via a loop 130 to terminal 16, and is negative, the arrangement being that if E is going more positive, the action of the motor M is to drive the voltage at slider 27 more negative, and vice versa, if E starts becoming less positive.

The source 15' differs from source 15 only in being set independently of the source 15, by hand, as by a manually-operated knob 30.

As thus far described, neither of output E or E will be produced if error signals e and e differ by less than the deadband due to differential amplifier characteristics imposed by circuitry 22. The error signals e and e, however, reflect the feedback voltage due to loop 130 and the voltages E and E Further, the process P is subject to disturbance, indicated at D, meaning any influence on the process temperature other than that due to the control agent, and E, therefore reflects the effect of D, also. The overall tendency of the system is to reduce error signals e and e to substantially zero.

Generally speaking, it is desirable to have certain amount of integrating action, that is to make the rate of supply of control agent reflect both how much the temperature of the system departs from its set point and for how long such deviation lasts. Broadly speaking, the integrating action is a function of the delay between the time the controller calls for a change in valve position and the time the controller can call for a new change. Customarily, both the integrating and proportional action are adjusted by means of various impedances, such as the resistance and capacitance shown in the box representing the feedback loop 130, and/or by means of such impedance represented by box 131. Thus, before feedback from slider 27 can fully counter the charge in E producing it, it must first charge up the capacitive impedance in the circuitry represented by boxes 130 and 131, (or discharge it, depending on the sense of change in B However, due to inherent limitations in the system, the integrating action can get out of hand. For example, the difference between E and E,,, could be large enough to call for the valve V to be more than percent open or 100 percent closed, or to be beyond the capacity of slider 27 voltage to reduce it.

Further, E can change faster than the voltage of tap 27 (motor M is normally a constant speed motor).

In consequence, the system is prone to over-control. That is, if an increase in control agent is called for, the controller causes the valve to supply too much, or too little, if decrease be called for. For practical purposes, some degree of overcorrection may be admitted, but it can be overdone, even to the extent that each change in control agent supply evokes a still larger change in theopposite sense.

The discriminating characteristics of the present invention are used to make the controller operate without any over-control tendencies. For these purposes, event a is the least difference between E and E that will exceed the corresponding deadband and cause one of the switches 17 and 17/ to close. Event b, on the other hand, is the same difference plus just so much more, as is enough to cause saturation of the appropriate one of amplifiers 12 and 12' and produce a difference in voltage exceeding the deadband of the differential arrangement of amplifiers 21 and 21, and capable of being amplified thereby enough to fire diode '24. Up to this point, the many megohms of drain to source resistance of the FET have kept the FET from having any effect on the difference between E and E,,,. When diode 24 fires, however, drain to source resistance drops to a low value, much lower than the resistance due to the other circuitry (not shown) which it parallels. The drop is chosen to be such that the low value of PET resistance substantially prevents E from exceeding (or dropping below) E,,, by more than enough to ultimately fire diode 24.

In actual values, it is not difficult to adjust the deadband to 0.5 millivolts plus or minus 10 percent, and to set the gain characteristics of the system such that if the difference between E and E,,,' becomes as high as L5 to 2.0 millivolts, one of switches 17 and 17 is on and PET is limiting. The expectable range of E is generally many times these few millivolts, 1 volt, for example, but the stability and accuracy of discrimination is not affected by the level of E,,,.

The PET is uniquely suited to limiting here, since it has practically zero offset voltage, as contrasted to the ordinary bipolar transistor. This assures that the PET is substantially a pure resistance and does not introduce any voltages of its own into the input of the controller. Further, its impedance in its high resistance state is so high that the controller. can have an input stage that also uses FETs. Again, drain and source connections can be interchanged, without significantly affecting the symmetry of the limiting, even with FETs whose drain to source resistance for a given polarity of voltage is different from its source to drain resistance, since the difference is generally too slight to be significant. The F ET should have its control electrode negatively biased by a source 31 of negative voltage to increase drain to source resistance during the times zener diode 24 is in the unfire'd state.

Those skilled in the art will be aware that each of the discriminating systems, namely: amplifiers 11 and 12, etc., of one channel, and the corresponding elements in the other channel, are merely stages in their respective channels, each of which may contain more stages than a common reference: circuit common as it is often called. This is illustrated in the case of the slider of potentiometer 28, where it will be seen that slider voltage is negative with respect to circuit commonCC. All other voltages and their polarities are to be so understood, also.

In the system of FIG. 7, system gain, namely the ratio of E or E to.the difference between E and E would normally be relatively high,.for the 'purpose of activating switches 17 and 17'. Each of switches 17 and 17' would usually be an electromagnetic relay insensitive enough not to be actuated by any value of E and E as might exist while the difference between E and E does not exceed the deadband. On the other hand, the change in E or E arising when such difference exceeds the deadband must be large enough to assuredly activate the corresponding switch. The ideal implied by this sort of operation is that E or E is either suitably large, or is small enough to be neglected, but nothing in between.

Actually, the switches 17 and 17' might represent some means to control the rotation speed of motor M or its net rotation from some reference position at which the valve V is half open, to a value proportional to the valve of E or E This would allow constructing each of loops 13 and 13 after the fashion of loop 130 and eliminating loop 130 and its source of feedback voltage. In this case, amplifiers 12 and 12 would be designed to amplify the difference between E and E over a given range, and set to saturate at a value of E or E corresponding to a certain maximum speed in either direction or to valve V attaining either of its limits (which are: fully closed and fully open). In this version of FIG. 7, the limitations of motor M do not influence the feedback of information as to valve position, for E or E is more or less an instantaneous prediction of what the position ofthe valve is going to be. It nonetheless isimportant, as is well known, that if such prediction is that the valve is going to becomev fully open or fully closed, then the difference between E and E,,, should be prevented from further increase.

The event-discriminating principle, FIGS. 1, 2 and 6 hereof, has the basic character of analog to digital conversion. Thus, in FIG. 2, if E is continuous, the system G operates the sensors 1 n at discrete values of E so that if the system G is constructed so that the sensors operate at equi-spaced values of E each sensor corresponds to one and only one integer-multiple ofthe spacing, and vice versa.

It is also to be noted that the differential amplifier principle applied in FIG. 7 hereof is exemplified in relay B, FIG. 5 of said copending application. Reference may also be had to Dij'j'erential Amplifiers, R.D. Middlebrook, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963.

The designations of certain entities as amplifiers is not to be construed as limiting. As is well known, an amplifier may be anything from a single transistor or equivalent element, to a complicated assemblage of such elements. It is also to be understood that whatever the nature of the amplifiers, the subsystems and the feedback'loops, their design will be such that the feedback signals at the summing junctions are negative in that their sense is such as to reduce E and its counterparts.

I claim:

1. An n-fold amplifier system comprising: a first amplifier subsystem having a negative feedback loop giving it gain G,, a second amplifier subsystem having a negative feedback loop giving it gain G,,, and a summing junction constructed and arranged to produce error signal E,, in response to an input signal; means for applying said input signal to said summing junction, means for applying said error signal to said first amplifier subsystem, and said first amplifier subsystem being responsive to said error signal to produce first output signal E,,,, G,, E means for applying said first output signal to said second amplifier subsystem, and said second amplifier subsystem being responsive to said first output signal to produce a second output signal E,,,, G,,E,,,, G,,G,, ,E,, and means for feeding back a feedback signal equal toa fraction of said second output signal to said summing junction so that E,, is the difference between the magnitudes of said input signal and said feedback signal; and so that said system has the system gain G and produces second output signal E,,,,=E,,,G,,,; said first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify a given value of said error signal E,, without saturating, and said second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate in response to said first output signal when said error signal E,, has said given value.

2. An amplifier system, said system being the system of claim 1 with n 2.

3. The amplifier system of claim 2, including a first sensor connected to receive said first output signal, and a second sensor connected to receive said second output signal; said second sensor being responsive to a value of E such that E,. is less than said given value, to sense the corresponding value of E said first sensor being responsive to a value of E,,,, greater than said given value of E multiplied by G,, to sense the corresponding value of E 4. The system of claim 1, wherein said first amplifier subsystem is in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feed- ,ing back to said further summing junction a fraction of saidfirst output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said said error signal E attaining a second given value higher than the first said given value; said further said amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal E,, without saturating.

5. The n-fold amplifier system of claim 1, including a first sensor connected to receive said first output signal, and a second sensor connected to receive said second output signal; said second sensor being responsive to a value of E such that E,, is less than said given value, to sense the corresponding value of E said first sensor being responsive to a value of E greater than said given value of E multiplied by G to sense the corresponding value of E 6. The system of claim 5, wherein said first amplifier subsystem is in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feeding back to said further summing junction a fraction of said first output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said said error signal E attaining a second given value higher than the first said given valueysaid further first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged such as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal E,, without saturating.

7. An n-fold amplifier system comprising: a first amplifier subsystem having gain G,, a second amplifier subsystem having gain G and a summing junction constructed and arranged to produce error signal E in 1. 1311 meansfor apflying said first output signal to said second amplifier subsystem, and said second amplifier subsystem being responsive to said first output signal to produce a second outputsignal E G,,E,,,,.=

G G E,, and means for feeding back a feedback signal equal to a fraction of said second output signal to said summing junction so that E is the difference between the magnitudes of said input signal and said feedback signal; and so that said system has the system gain G and produces second output signal E E G said first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify a given value of said error signal E without saturating, and said second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate in response to said first output signal when said error signal E, has said given value; said first amplifier subsystem being in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feeding back to said further summing junction a fraction of said first output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said error signal E attaining a second given value higher than the first said given value; said further first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged such as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal E,, without saturating, 

1. An n-fold amplifier system comprising: a first amplifier subsystem having a negative feedback loop giving it gain Gn 1, a second amplifier subsystem having a negative feedback loop giving it gain Gn, and a summing junction constructed and arranged to produce error signal En 1, in response to an input signal; means for applying said input signal to said summing junction, means for applying said error signal to said first amplifier subsystem, and said first amplifier subsystem being responsive to said error signal to produce first output signal Eon 1 Gn 1En 1, means for applying said first output signal to said second amplifier subsystem, and said second amplifier subsystem being responsive to said first output signal to produce a second output signal Eon GnEon 1 GnGn 1En 1, and means for feeding back a feedback signal equal to a fraction of said second output signal to said summing junction so that En 1 is the difference between the magnitudes of said input signal and said feedback signal; and so that said system has the system gain G1n and produces second output signal Eon EinG1n; said first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify a given value of said error signal En 1 without saturating, and said second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate in response to said first output signal when said error signal En 1 has said given value.
 2. An amplifier system, said system being the system of claim 1 with n
 2. 3. The amplifier system of claim 2, including a first sensor connected to receive said first output signal, and a second sensor connected to receive said second output signal; said second sensor being responsive to a value of Eon such that En 1 is less than said given value, to sense the corresponding value of Ein; said first sensor being responsive to a value of Eon 1 greater than said given value of En 1 multiplied by Gn 1, to sense the corresponding value of Ein.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein said first amplifier subsystem is in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feeding back to said further summing junction a fraction of said first output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said said error signal En 1 attaining a second given value higher than the first said given value; said further said amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal En without saturating.
 5. The n-fold amplifier system of claim 1, including a first sensor connected to receive said first output signal, and a second sensor connected to receive said second output signal; said second sensor being responsive to a value of Eon such that En 1 is less than said given value, to sense the corresponding value of Ein; said first sensor being responsive to a value of Eon 1 greater than said given value of En 1 multiplied by Gn 1, to sense the corresponding value of Ein.
 6. The system of claim 5, wherein said first amplifier subsystem is in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feeding back to said further summing junction a fraction of said first output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said said error signal En 1 attaining a second given value higher than the first said given value; said further first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged such as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal En 1 without saturating.
 7. An n-fold amplifier system comprising: a first amplifier subsystem having gain Gn 1, a second amplifier subsystem having gain Gn, and a summing junction constructed and arranged to produce error signal En 1, in response to an input signal; means for applying said input signal to said summing junction, means for applying said error signal to said first amplifier subsystem, and said first amplifier subsystem being responsive to said error signal to produce first output signal Eon 1 Gn 1En 1, means for applying said first output signal to said second amplifier subsystem, and said second amplifier subsystem being responsive to said first output signal to produce a second output signal Eon GnEon GnGn En 1, and means for feeding back a feedback signal equal to a fraction of said second output signal to said summing junction so that En 1 is the difference between the magnitudes of said input signal and said feedback signal; and so that said system has the system gain G1n and produces second output signal Eon EinG1n; said first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged so as to be able to amplify a given value of said error signal En 1 without saturating, and said second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate in response to said first output signal when said error signal En 1 has said given value; said first amplifier subsystem being in itself composed of a further first amplifier subsystem and a further second amplifier subsystem corresponding to the first said first amplifier subsystem and the first said second amplifier subsystem, respectively, and includes a further summing junction constructed and arranged to produce said input signal, there being means for feeding back to said further summing junction a fraction of said first output signal and means for applying a further input signal to said further summing junction such that the first said input signal is the difference between the magnitudes of said further feedback signal and said further input signal; said further second amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged to saturate upon said error signal En 1 attaining a second given value higher than the first said given value; said further first amplifier subsystem being constructed and arranged such as to be able to amplify said second given value of said error signal En 1 without saturating. 